Black People in Usa Essay

I have chosen this course because in my opinion Afro-American People’s history is very interesting. It reveals both how cruel human beings can be and how a discriminated â€Å"population† can all the same produce wonderful things. I. The discrimination that Black People have suffered and continue suffering in the USA. 1 °/ In the Past A.The Slavery. I don’t think one can discuss the suffering of this population without talking about Slavery. This abomination has lasted several centuries and has consisted of kidnapping innocent African and bringing them in a far country. They were deprived of their names, languages, religion, cultures †¦ As a result; one may say that they weren’t considered as human beings. They have had to do a hard work in the cotton fields, and their living conditions got closer to animals way of life. Actually, there were even some men who were called and used as reproductive. For the women, rapes weren’t punished. B.The Segregation After the Slavery was abolished, Black People even if they were free, have faced an other terrible discrimination: the Segregation. It took place in the Southern States, where the Black community was very important. Perhaps, it came from a fear of White people. It was written in the Law and as a consequence for instance Black people haven’t the right to sit or eat in the same places than White people. In the Northern States, even if it wasn’t written in the law there was a tacit rule. 2 °/ Nowadays A.Not really equal in front of Law Actually, it is said that a Black men has seven more chance to condemn to death penalty than a White men. So even today they are prejudiced. Moreover, the media reveals regularly some police atrocities against Black people. So even today, the law is double faced and it’s better to be White if one has any problem with the justice. B.Not the same Education Black pupils are concerned by the discrimination too. They are often sent to school in very poor areas. Thus, they don’t benefit from the same education’s level than the White pupils. Their chance to access to a good university is seriously reduced. There, it’s again a piece of evidence of discrimination. Until today, there is no significant action from the USA government to solve this problem, this unfair phenomenon. II. Some good things emerged from a catastrophic history 1 °/ A culture A. Music Today, nobody can deny the influence of Black community on the music. Several famous kinds of music as Rap, Jazz, R’n’B for instance are the direct product of this community. It all begins with the work songs by the Slave, the Negro Spiritual and the Gospel by the victims of segregation. Their music is spread all over the world and paradoxically without the terrible history which is behind I don’t think they would have done such wonderful music. It entails a artistic creativity in this community. B.Fashion Afro-American people also contributed to the fashion. In fact, in Harlem particularly in the nineties, the people’s clothes have been taken as model by some garment firms. Nowadays, one can notice that the Rappers’ or R’n’B singers’ way of being dressed is imitated all over the world. A huge part of them are developing their own clothes’ lines; 2 °/ Last but not least: the Individuals A. Rosa Parks In the sixties this courageous woman contrasted against the Segregation. In a bus, she has refused to leave her place to a White man. This act which can be perceived as common today is the origin of a huge movement’s success. She has showed the way to several Black-American and emphasized an injustice. B.Martin Luther King Jr. He was a Reverend who has leaded the Civil Right’s Movement in the sixties and died, murdered, in 1968. He started to have a great success after the bus story. He has supported Mrs. Rosa Parks. He also has fought against the discrimination without any violence. He has defended the equality between Black and White People and inspired people who were discriminated against all over the world. His most famous speech named â€Å"I have a dream† is known by everyone within it he advocated the brotherhood. Even after his death, some people remained animated by his struggle. As a conclusion, I think that the terrible history of the USA entails some very good things but the price for benefiting from them has been very important.   The question is how and when the USA’s authorities will admit that they have to do something. We know that the Affirmative Action measure hasn’t really been efficient so which measures can be enforced to help Black-American people. In my opinion, compelling firms to hire Black people is not a good idea and the better is to educate younger generations by teaching them to be more tolerant.

Consider Atwood’s portrayal of religion in Gilead Essay

All around us we see evidence of the way in which belief is institutionalised and abused. Consider Atwood’s portrayal of religion in Gilead Many modern day beliefs have been used as excuses for war, or as a way of suppressing groups of people. In ‘The Handmaid’s tale’ Atwood has taken abuse of belief and religion to the extreme, using it to create a worrying futuristic dystopia where all laws are based on extracts from the bible and the texts have been twisted to suit the more powerful members of society. It is impossible for handmaids, or many other members of Gilead to check the authenticity of the extracts that rule their life as they are forbidden from reading and the bible is kept locked up. In ‘The Handmaid’s tale’ free will is nothing more than a memory, different Christian branches are at war with each other. The bible is used to justify the regimes and practises of Gilead and sexuality has been suppressed into something shameful and dangerous. Chapter two offers the reader their first decent example of how religion is used within the society of Gilead. It is in the simple use of a name that Atwood is able to immediately establish a link between her dystopia and the bible. ‘Her usual Martha’s dress’. In the bible Martha is the sister of Mary who would devote herself to the housework while Mary went to hear Jesus speak. Marthas in ‘The Handmaids Tale’ are unmarried, infertile women who are expected to perform household duties for the high-ranking members of Gilead. This is the first time the reader is given an example of rank based on religion with Gilead, the reader is made aware of Handmaids and of the Commander earlier in the book but this is the first obvious biblical reference. Martha is not important in the bible, but the powers of Gilead has taken her role and expanded it so that they can justify having slaves within their society. This early example gives the reader an impression of what sort of society Gilead is and what they can expect further into the book as far as rank and religion are concerned. In Chapter eleven Offred is offered the opportunity to get pregnant by the doctor. Offred is worried about being caught having sex with someone who wasn’t the commander. Offred considers the doctors offer, she knows it is a risk ‘but they have to catch you in the act, with two witnesses. ‘ This method of convicting people is taken from Deuteronomy 17:6 ‘At the mouth of two witnesses†¦ shall he that is to die be put to death. ‘ The bible reference is saying that nobody can be convicted when it is just their word against someone else’s, this must be the same way people in Gilead practise law. Unfortunately it would be very easy for two people to get together and agree on the same story if they wanted to frame someone. It also further removes individuality and freethinking, people are already expected to travel in groups of at least two and the suggestion is that one person’s opinion is useless unless supported by someone else. It also makes things very difficult for handmaid’s who are often required to be on their own with the commander’s wife and if there aren’t any witnesses present then there is no crime and the handmaids are left in a very vulnerable position. Television in Gilead is censored, like everything else. It is clear that this society functions by keeping people ve for as long as possible, if they can’t read and their only visual entertainment in censored to suit the ideals of Gilead then they cannot really form their own opinions and would be entirely dependant on what others told them. However the information that comes from the television tells the reader about battles Gilead is involved in. The odd thing about the battles is that they are taking place with different branches of the same religion. ‘Angels of the Apocalypse†¦ are smoking out a pocket of Baptist guerrillas’. ‘Five members of the heretical sect of Quakers have been arrested’. It is possible to read more into the news reports than meets the eye. The Baptists are relying on guerrilla warfare that is commonly the form of warfare used by under-developed countries that aren’t looking for war. There is also a fair amount of irony in the sense that the report claims that the Quakers are heretical or sacrilegious when the reader knows that the society of Gilead is based on sacrilege. This may suggest that Gilead is fighting these other branches of Christianity to stop them from demonstrating to the world, and more importantly to the people of Gilead that their society is based on twisted truths.

Low Cost or Differentiation

1. Using scenario planning, analyze the pros and cons of each alternative. Alternative of low cost Pros * New traffic for budget conscious customers * More sales volume Cons * More needed space to hold product * Less product available because selling product faster * More labor required for replenishment of inventory and store front * More disgruntled employees from sheer volume of customers * High employee turnover from stress Alternative of differentiation Pros * Highlights company strengths and niches * Attract target customers * Higher revenue per transaction Lower cost because specialized inventory needs less space Cons * Alienate customers that can’t afford higher cost of product * Higher market risk because business is less diversified Alternative of using both low cost and differentiation Pros * More customer volume * More diversified customer base * More opportunities through greater sales options Cons * Need more space * Labor will feel more drained due to employees needing to have more product knowledge on a higher volume of product * Low cost diminishes the prestige and experience of the high cost * Low cost stigma diminished by expensive product . Think about the various clothing retailers in your local malls and city, and analyze the choices they have made about how to compete with one another along the low-cost and differentiation dimensions. Low cost Macy’s has gone to lower price points and over time lost prestige in the market. Macy’s has attempted to go for more volume but because of the recession was always empty whenever I walked into the store. They stopped lower cost because they didn’t want to lose appearance of the go to fashion locale, instead they were being viewed as the cheaper last season stop.Macy’s is now trying to stop the decline in their reputation but are still stuck in the middle, like the example in the book. Differentiation In the last five years Nordstrom seems to be the go to up to date fashion stop for people seeking high end fashion. The prices are noticeably higher. Nordstrom clearly differentiates themselves through superior customer service, cleaner stores, and top designer name brands. Nordstrom differentiates themselves further with a near unlimited open return policy, free alterations and tailoring, helpful employees happy to be there, and employees happy to help showing why they are worth the extra money.

Family and sports, recreation, leisure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Family and sports, recreation, leisure - Essay Example I have come to realize that these SRL activities also changes with time or the generation (Human Kinetics 2005). You notice that the sports recreation and leisure activities that were practiced by our parents or quite different from what we are practicing today. These few factors made me to talk to my mother and my grandmother in an interest to know more about my family generation history in sports, recreation, and leisure activities. Family interviews I had some questions to ask my grandfather; Me: â€Å"Grandfather, did you consider your family as being poor or rich?† Grandfather: â€Å"I can’t say that we were that rich, but my father had enough properties and resources to support the family’s wellbeing. My father had a large farm and livestock, he was a great farmer. That’s how he managed to raise the family.† Me: â€Å"Did you enjoy your life?† Grandfather: â€Å"yes I really enjoyed my time very well. As a young boy, I always played to gether with other young boys. I also enjoyed assisting my parents in the farm.† Me: â€Å"What recreation or sports activities did you participate during your leisure time?† Grandfather: â€Å"We had a lot of activities to do. ... When I was young, your grandpa took care of me very well. I used to hang out with the rest of young boys when out of school.† Me: â€Å"What were your favorite sporting and leisure activities?† Father: â€Å"There were many sporting activities we used to play. We played board games, high jumps, bullfights and participated in local wrestling competition. We also did some hunting activities but not often. During the night, we could assemble together in a fire and listen for stories from our grandparents.† The Ties of My Grandfather’s Generation with the Readings The time of my grandfather’s youthful age was the time when the communities were still indigenous. The kind of sports, games, and social activities they participated in like dancing and some physical activities were reflecting their culture and a particular way of life. The culture that was adapted was from my grandfather’s tribe. The tribe’s culture and traditions determined thei r leisure and sporting activities. These physical activities, games, and sports were considered very important means of recreation. The different classes of people played their games and sports differently. My grandfather’s ethnic community could not interact or play with other ethnic communities (Mackenzie, Para 7). My Generation Sports, Recreation, and Leisure (SRL) Activities All these activities are quite different from the sporting, recreation, and leisure activities that I practice or the current young people are practicing in their free time. Our sporting activities vary from field sports like soccer, rugby, and athletics and so on to indoor games and computer games. I spend my time playing and watching soccer, which

CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAY Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CAUSE AND EFFECT - Essay Example It is also possible that one of these two people might tell others who would further tell the remaining staff that is working within the organization and hence the gossip can turn really nasty at the end. Having informal gossips in the workplace suggests that the employees are not concentrating properly on their assigned tasks and the bosses take particular note of this fact. They mention these points to the employees who like to gossip a lot and also warn them from time to time so that the gossip within the workplace is reduced drastically. The effects of this workplace gossip are that the employees have a bad image within the organization and they are not taken in high esteem. They are also told of concentrating on their own duties rather than wasting their times on having useless gossips all the time. Workplace gossips also mean that the employees have lost a lot of interest in their work and they do not find their job challenging enough. The employers should provide comfort to these types of employees by changing their job nature or making their job focus a bit more different. They can also be delegated work in a different manner so that they feel at ease with the working methods . The employers generally do not like the employees who gossip a lot and are always suggesting some ways as to how they can control this problem. They find different means and ways through which workplace gossip could be reduced. It is a fact that employees are also humans and they need to talk to each other because after all a workplace is essentially not a jail but the restroom is one such place where they can hold their conversations. Even in lunch time they can chat over in an informal manner but when they are at their desk and doing work then that means work is everything and gossip holds no place within the office boundaries. Similarly, plants and

MRP5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

MRP5 - Essay Example The study will focus on how thinking in the past affected the respondent’s decision to act in various situations. The respondent will also share the experience of the effect of external relationships have to decision making. Some of the ethical behavior to be studied and analyzed are; honesty, integrity, loyalty, respect, caring, obedient, commitment, and accountability. The research will incorporate both descriptive and correlation research designs. It will rely on observations, case study, and survey. Respondents will interact with various stimuli and closely monitored on how they will conduct themselves in such situations. Questionnaires will be administered to guide the specific elements that might dictate the required ethical issue being studied. The design is chosen as the aspects to be studied should be done within a short time of time. The study is also incorporating a range of variables that have for comparison and analysis. The idea of this study emerged after long observation of how people behave in very funny ways. Then it led to the rise of the most commonly asked question â€Å"Do people think before they act?† The question led to need asses and harmonized the society for the well-being of everybody without infringing the rights of others. The research targets college students because they were considered to be the most affected lot. They also live together despite the fact that they come from different backgrounds. The varying background helps to cut across the entire general society in the country. Fourteen respondents will be picked randomly from five national colleges. The sample must have equal number of male and female students. Which of these ethical behavior correlates? Does a person think before acting where an immediate response is necessary? After the act, does a person sit back and reflect what just happened? If people reflect their acts, how long do they take before they do this? The

ABSTRACT AND CONCLUSION for my critical communication event in recent Essay

ABSTRACT AND CONCLUSION for my critical communication event in recent history - Essay Example Critical communication encompasses several avenues, taking the simplest avenue at one point, and a complex one at another. These avenues include: the press, film, radio, television, internet and wireless communication. This paper will focus on individual critical communication avenues, and further define the interrelationship between and among these avenues in the context of an event in recent history. Emery Orto, a 6-foot 350-pounds suburban Chicago man, was denied flying with Southwest Airlines from Las Vegas to Midway because of his size (Netter, 2009; eTurboNews Inc., 2010). He was not ready to buy a second ticket nor did he communicate with the Airlines personnel properly so that they could see he was right by letting him board the plane and seeing for themselves (Monson, 2011). After the incident happened, there were a lot of people who were of the point of view that Orto should have been allowed to fly (Texas, 2009). But critically analyzing the situation, one comes to know that the Airlines personnel was only doing its duty by questioning Orto as by boarding him with only one seat booked would not only have made him uncomfortable but the comfort of other passengers sitting next to him was also at stake. The customer of size policy of South West Airlines (2011) states that, â€Å"Customers who are unable to lower both armrests and/or who compromise any portion of adjacent seating should proactively book the number of seats needed prior to travel†. This incident got media’s attention and became a hot topic just because of Orto’s ego and unwillingness to communicate with the Airlines personnel. I believe that Orto should have kept his ego aside. The personnel reports that Orto was offered to board the plane to show that he could fit in one seat without disturbing his seatmates, but he refused which shows irrational behavior and reluctance to

Business Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Business Culture - Essay Example We suggest that those that involve a combination of cultures are even more at risk. The poor success rate due to concentrating only on financial aspects will be even more detrimental in cultures where priorities lie elsewhere. We also believe that corporations actually sacrifice performance by neglecting to profitably leverage differences in culture and that culture mix is potentially advantageous. Western companies working internationally and planning joint ventures in China, Japan or India are unlikely to have put in place a working global strategy for themselves. To do this, they will need to identify what can be standardised between cultures and what must be localised (Yip). Some corporations know how to do this, McDonald's being a good example. Others do not: Burger King failed in at least one European country for this reason. Part of the cultural differences is the business management differences. We have seen companies from both the East and the West unsuccessfully try to impose their own style of management in completely different cultural contexts. In our opinion, there is no one management theory that is generally applicable, just as there is no "one-size-fits-all" culture. Compounded by fundamental differences in values, religions and languages, the business culture between East and West has developed in different ways. Some of these differences are immediate. The difference in language, both spoken and written, characters for some, ideograms for others. From our experience, a westerner's first glimpse of eastern cultural differences comes from the initial business communications, particularly in face-to-face meetings. Where the westerner expects to describe everything in great detail, the eastern cultures are more oriented to a context rich in non-verbal information, where less sometimes means more (Hall). China in particular has occasioned much discussion and revamping of business models. Hofstede in his model of cultural dimensions first defined four dimensions and then added the fifth, "Long-term vs. Short-term", to take account of China (Hofstede). We see this criterion, dealing with the attitude of persevering to overcome problems in time, as be ing typically weighted towards the long term for Asian countries in general. Going further than some of the other models defined, we can start to characterise China, Japan and India for joint ventures in different ways. Thus China is an example of a "diffuse" culture, where responsibility is shared or diffused (Trompenaars), compared with the "specific" culture of a country like the UK, where responsibility is specifically assigned. Japan can be described as having a synchronic culture (doing several things at once) compared to a typical western sequential culture. India with its caste system is a prime example of a culture functioning by ascription (status is given according to social standing) rather than the western ideal of achievement and meritocracy. China - cultural difficulties for a joint venture Of the three nations considered (China, Japan and India), China is perhaps the one that has undergone the most profound changes in the last century. The change from empire to republic and the transfer of power from self-elected dynasty to revolutionary leaders backed by the population were fundamental alterations. However, the

The Effect of Parental Involvement in Academic and Behavioral Success Research Paper

The Effect of Parental Involvement in Academic and Behavioral Success of Students - Research Paper Example The paper shows that parents prepare their students for school, walk with them to middle school and monitor their behavior when they reach the maturity stage. However, the entire process meets challenges that hamper the extent to which a parent would go to fulfill the behavior and academic expectations of a student. There are schools that do not engage parents in the academic learning process. Teachers and school administrators assume that parents and families do not want to get involved and fail to provide an efficient communication platform. In addition, the barriers to communication such as lack of proficiency in the official language and lack of adequate time for the parents could result in a student life that does not involve any parental element. He wroteâ€Å"when children develop a reputation for exhibiting challenging behavior their parents can be reluctant to go into schools for fear of getting bad news. In fact, there is a negative correspondence between rapid parental involvement and children’s behavioral problems†. It is evident from the discussion that parents want to get involved in the academic and behavior success right from the time they join the school to the time they attain the age of majority. Parents want to be involved, and it is wrong for institutions to assume that they do not want to offer support for learning and behavioral development of their students. The relationship between parents and students should be stable at all times to ensure behavioral and academic success.

Goods Spend Analysis Report Essay Example for Free

Goods Spend Analysis Report Essay Gathering complete and accurate data of total goods spending requires the access to spend data from all relevant sources both within and outside the company. Good data cannot be collected when spend analysis is not supported by stakeholders including customers, suppliers, and internal clients. Step Two: Form a spend analysis team The company needs to realize that spend analysis is too critical to be assigned as an additional duty of purchasing department. A spend analysis team should be formed and dedicated to collect and analyze data and perform more strategic functions such as future spend forecast, budget review and adjustment, and program research. Step Three: Examine data quality and identify an effective data management process A considerable number of purchase orders or purchasing activities are not electronically transmitted in the company therefore the accuracy of purchasing records must be examined. In order to obtain complete, accurate, and consistent data, all stakeholders should identify an effective data/record management process to ensure accuracy. Step Four: Create a proper classification schema It’s very unlikely that the company will adopt an automated spend data management system designed for spend data extraction, cleansing and classification process. The spend analysis team will have to determine how to group spend data around distinct commodities with the concept of strategic sourcing in mind. Spend data should be categorized at the item level, providing visibility and allowing comparisons of detailed attributes across suppliers and commodities. Step Five: Implement spend analysis reports on a monthly basis The monthly spend analysis reports should highlight the top suppliers, internal customers, commodities receiving spend. Other reports addressing accumulated savings and process improvement should also be implemented and shared with other stakeholders for the purpose of involving them in advanced sourcing plans. Reporting will provide a high visibility into spending and help develop a cost-saving model to be used in strategic sourcing. Specific Key Triggers The company has a high percentage of single sourcing for direct commodities as they have signed contracts with the suppliers in Asia who manufacture different product lines for them. They have negotiated low rates for the products that will be manufactured and shipped to Canada and then directly distributed to customers (mainly retailers and gift stores). Since the company has a large customer base instead of a large supplier base, the key triggers to be considered for focus are high dollar value of direct goods or product lines, high dollar value of make-to-order for customers, high dollar value of indirect goods for internal customers, and high number of transactions of indirect goods for internal customers. Procurement Strategy and Spend Analysis All the products must pass safety and lead testing in Canada before selling and distribution. The procurement strategy the company currently employs is low cost with standard quality. The goods spend analysis recommended in this essay will work well with the company’s procurement strategy. It is true that the company is struggling to reduce costs and cut spending at all levels, however, they cannot afford sourcing products with lower quality as the spending on inspection and disposal will dramatically rise. In order to monitor and manage spending properly, strategic spend analysis is the only effective tool they can use to achieve the goal.

Media And Ideology Understanding Politics Through Films Media Essay

Media And Ideology Understanding Politics Through Films Media Essay Mass media already became an inevitable dimension in present modern society. It is almost occupying our large time in everyday life. However, just as we are so familiar with the media products, it is particularly easy to overlook the questions which mass media has brought to us. In ordinary life, we are hardly to consider what impact has mass media generated to our life, social relations, politics, culture and other respects, and what the relations of media and other social institutions. Mass media is such a complexity that difficult to clarify it as a whole. Thereby, in this paper, the purpose is to concentrate on one specific media text- film, and to examine how it activates on politics. This paper begins with a brief introduction of media importance within peoples everyday life, who owns media, and the relation between media and government. Then, two relative items will be drawn out: ideology and representation. Ideology as a kind of fundamental theory could explain why media as w ell as film could serve for political dominance. And as for representation, which as an important function of mass media, it provides the possibility for ideology activating on media. In part two, there will be an introduction of the function and effects of film, and then three typical films are cited to interpret why and how those films in Reagan era could affect that time politics. In the last part, there will be a discussion about the effects of the historical films on present society. Media and Ideology Media Importance With the drastic development of high technology and consumption demands, media almost saturates every corner in our ordinary life. The role media playing in modern society is diverse, such as radio, television, magazines, movies, and books are all serving for it. Meanwhile, how many hours in our everyday life are occupied by these items? Probably after you waking up, the first thing is to open television or radio to hear news, and next on the way to work, you might buy a piece of newspaper to browser, during working time you possibly watch magazines or chat with your colleague about this days news, and then, when you lay on the sofa after finishing one days work, the best thing is to enjoy a television show or movies as you like. Why we are so depending on media? The best way to answer it is to invert this question as if without media, what situation our life will be. We will not know what happened around and outside ourselves, do not know say what with friends, and have nothing to d o after returning home. Maybe we will rest much many time to enjoy the beautifully natural views surrounding us, but, who really concern this in such a colorfully consumer society. As a result, the sources of entertainment and perception towards this world from various media means are extremely significant to us in contemporary society. However, apart from enjoying the happiness and amusement that media bring to us, have you thought about who decide or influence media contents in contemporary life? And what impact mass media are bringing about to our life and social relations? In order to clarify these two questions, we should research from the production and contents of media. Firstly, under the promotion of economic profits, the ownership of media has become concentrated (Bagdikian 2000). The key effect of concentration on the media products is homogenization, and to some extent, the government and certain executive access are likely to affect media products (Croteau and Hoynes, 2003). Government influence on media production is a general phenomenon, no matter in totalitarian societies or democratic societies. The distinction is, in democratic societies, the freedom of press and expression is protected by the law, however, this kind of freedom is under the structure which government organized (Croteau and Hoynes, 2003). Just as Bagdikian (2000) said that in the contemporary United State, a country that is intensely advocating democracy, its information system is largely controlled by private interests, rather than government. But normally, private and go vernment interests are consistent, because they are all standing for dominantly capitalistic interests. So this is why many media barons and politicians are both apt to use media to realize their political aims. On the other hand, the mass media similarly helps to witness and improve the regime of American politics, which refers to the media influence on politics. If in order to elaborate this idea, the term of ideology should be depicted here. Ideology and Representation The reason why so many scholars are interested to examine media products to uncover their ideology is ideology is a decidedly complicated term with different implications depending on the context in which it is used (Croteau and Hoynes 2003, p. 159). It has extensive meanings including worldview, belief system, and values, and meanwhile, it also could help somebody define and even form these concepts implied in their own consciousness. In this context, the ideological analysis of certain specific media text is a useful way to understand the fit between the images and words in a specific media text and ways of thinking about, even defining, social and crucial issues (Croteau and Hoynes 2003, p. 160). In addition, the ideology implied in media texts does not naturally exist, but must be given by someone for a certain interests. In the early ideological analysis about media products, there are two important theoretical roots that are still invaluable for contemporary ideological study. One is the early Marxist origin, and the other one is the concept of hegemony. For early Marxists, ideology was used by the dominant class for imposing their ruling worldview and values on the subordinate class, and consequently, ensuring their governing stable and permanent. So, in this discussion, ideology was considered linking with the concept of false consciousness, which was produced by and on the behalf of ruling class, rather than matching ones objective interests (Croteau and Hoynes 2003, p. 164). From this perspective, ideological analysis is associated with political domination, power, and continually to focus on the issue of the ways certain groups fight to have their specific interests accepted as the general interests of a society (Croteau and Hoynes 2003, p. 165). Even in contemporary society, the basic outlines of this early Marxist model are still constructive to analyze social relations, while the concentration has moved away from economic- class relations to the terrain of culture. With this perspective, famous Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsi (1971) has brought about a remarkable study of hegemony, which connecting hegemony to the notions of culture, power, and ideology. Firstly, Gramsi (1971) argued the functions of force and culture or ideology on maintaining power. It is doubtless that force is an effective way to remain state domination, due to it can affect by means of coercion, which require the application of institutions such as the military, police and other state administrative organs. However, in liberal democratic societies, force is not suited to be the primary means of state ruling. Because in modern society, liberalism, civil rights, and human peace are the mainstream. Besides, unreasonable and excessive force control is also the main origin of citizen resistant revolution. And then, in this context, Gramsi (1971) suggests that it is likely to convert the strategy to another terrain- culture, by which also can wield power and even more easily, because it can take place in peoples everyday life, the most important point is through this way people are actively and voluntarily obedient to the ruling. Gramsis theory of hegemony is working through the operation of consent, or we can call it common sense. The operating principle of common sense is the dominant class actively attends to make their worldview and values accepted by all social members (Gramsi 1971). Therefore, if dominant class could turn the idea that is on the behalf of their interests to universal consent, then they are able to achieve the ideological dominant on subordinate class. In this process, an essential notion of natural should be picked up to depict. Generally, when we say something is natural, normally because it is without human process, which is opposite to artificial. Consequently, we will not suspect the reality and legitimacy if something is defined as natural. For example, if it was propagated that homosexuality is a natural principle initially, and then maybe there is little debate of gay and lesbian relationship, due to they are not social problems rather natural order of things. Thus, hegemony operation of culture is going to generate commonsense assumption, and then converting this commonsense assumption to the uncontested level of natural. Schools, religion, and media all can be the efficient sites to help realize this process, because they are where could be controlled by dominant class to produce and reproduce ways of thinking about society. Stuart Hall (1982) has pointed out a crucial analysis of how mass media institutions are coherent with hegemony. First of all, he included media as his concept called the politics of significant, in which media identified has an unique function- representation, which is different from simply reflecting the reality of world, but implies the active work of selecting and presenting, of structuring and shaping; nor merely the transmitting of an already existing meaning, but the more active labor of making things mean (p. 64). Secondly, Hall (1982) explained why media representation is intertwined with ideology and hegemony. Like I mentioned, ideology could underlie certain worldview and values in different contexts, and as for media representation, which has capacity of making things mean, so, media can become the irrecusable approach of generating and propagating ideology. And if further connect this perspective to power and media ownership in the early part, it is clear that dominant c lass could instill its assumption into media, and plus media are places where certain idea could be circularly transmitted to public, in this way, the meanings which are on the interests of dominant power could become consent of every audience of the media. This is why almost every country is willing to regard media institutions as an efficient channel to animate its policy and governing. Film and Politics Film Introduction Many scholars are interested in focusing the ideological analysis of media products on specific medium or specific media texts that are within a specific historical period. The reason is, firstly, the term mass media is such a multiple and plural complexity that it is difficult to perfectly generalize the meanings of abundant media products as a whole; secondly, media texts are usually produced in specific historical context, responding to and helping frame the cultural currents of the day (Croteau and Hoynes 2003, p. 173), so, concentrating on a specific historical media text is more helpful to understand the real meanings and reality represented within a media text under certain historical environment. Film as one of diverse media products, is an efficient media text because it is alive representation of different events, it has the ability to transport the audiences to a number of different times and places by its moving images. In addition, films could through the image representation of a certain time period generating impact on present audiences, to ask them if they were placed in the same situation what they would do (Sachleben, M and Yenerall, K 2004). Besides its unique performing format, film itself also has different types: silent films, black and white films, color films, documentary films and narrative films. The differences of these films are not only confined to the difference of techniques, but also can be seen from the messages transmitted by them. For example, after the color technique has been generally applied to film making, black and white film are still as an important art form existing in film products, a successful instance was Schindlers list made by Spielbe rg in 1993. Generally speaking, the application of black and white photography could help highlight the darkness of film subject on one hand, on the other hand, directors wonder use it to create dramatic effects. For another film type-documentary, which is suited to represent or reconstruct historical events, and helping understand politics. However, there were still a large number of politicians and directors who preferred narrative films to convey and propagate their political aims, due to narrative films is a kind of films that through stories to absorb audiences to follow its plots, and engage audiences to the evolvement of films contents. After understanding the fundamental functions and features of films, it is time to research the contents of films. Film as a media text, of course, it could make things mean, and serve for certain dominant class to transmit a specific way of thinking, worldview, or values. Due to the diversity of film contents, in this section, the research focuses on how films represent and impact politics during a specific historical period. Here, a concept should be clear that this paper is not to define what are political films, but to utilize a series of films during a particular time period to illustrate ideas and topics in politics under certain historical context. The Films In The Reagan Era Before the presidency of Ronald Reagan, American was in a tough condition: the darkness of Vietnam War failure, national threat from Soviet, and the economic decline. Just as Rupert Wilkinson (1984, p. 6) said, the 1980 election came at a post-imperial moment, when Americans were not at all sure what role they wanted or could obtain either for their presidents or for their country in world affairs, in that time Americans were lack of powerful spiritual root and national confidence. However, since Reagans main three political agenda, Americas spiritual strength has restored as well as its renewed responsible world role (Nixon 1992). Another important reason was Reagans own self-confidence did not been defeat by the introspection of the post-Vietnam era, and he even transferred his own self-confidence to the whole country, and accordingly restored the national self-confidence (Cannon 1991). In this respect, Hollywood film industry has played an important role. As we known, Reagan has e ver been a popular film star before he stepped on his political career. Consequently, he extraordinarily understood how influential and pervasive film is on the aspect of transferring and shaping meanings, thereby marginalizing or dismissing other opposite claims. So naturally, within his policies, movie material was a crucial component. Through analysis of the films made in Reagan era, we could comprehend how film represented politics in a specific historical and political setting. Anti-communism In the 1980s, the relationship of America and Soviet has entered the so-called New Cold War period. The international condition in that period, for Soviet Union, they were preparing the coming of new world war against America, and actively taking the preparation of nuclear and arms expansion, and implementing the highly centralization of state management. On the other hand, in the aspect of America, externally, Reagan advocated deploying the overall containment to Soviet Union from the aspects of politics, economic, military, diplomacy and ideology, towards domestic market, he insisted that human values can surpass any worthless technology and mechanization, highlighting the importance of human mind, which could become the best weapon within the competition against outside communism and mechanized devices. Under this kind of political context, there were three extremely popular films during the mid-1980s. The first one was The Star Wars, in which Luke Skywalker was shaped as a good individual, who depended on his own intellectual and mind power to defeat the dark technologized body- the evil Darth Vader. The second one was Rambo, in which portrayed a hardened American soldier character, who relying on his own mind and faith overbears foreign policy. The last one was Terminator, in this film the theme was anti-nuclear and hard-body mythology, it accentuated that humanity was the most powerful weapon that can defeat any enemy. Generalizing the main themes of these three films, we can find that they almost advocate a same idea by different narrative stories, which is consistent with Reaganism, that the mind is the best weapon, and depreciates the machine domination, which is similar with Soviet Unions arms expansion policy. If further anatomize the contents of these three films, we can fi nd that those bad guys in each, such as the technologized Darth Vader, the character of Sergeant Yushin- a Soviet version who also has the strong body as the same as Rambo, and completed mechanized, machine-made Terminator are all the reflections of outside forces which could potentially destroy all freedom of human being, in Reagans ideology are no different from Soviet communists. Then moving into the late-1980s, a new screen character was able to transcribe the Reagans pro-technology militarism at home, which consequently formed a comparison with the external negative feature of the Soviet Union, that was Robcop, a totally computerized, law-enforcement officer, who can eliminate all kinds of criminals. The difference between Robcop and the former mechanized character is, although they are all computer-programmed, their standpoints are different, Robcop was endued new conceptions-humanity and punishing crime. From this image, we can know that Robcop is the endorsement of revived R eagans military, it can eliminate any enemy including communism. Vietnam War Films One prevalent films genre in 1980s was return to Vietnam films, the most typical one is the series of Rambo, which depicts the hardened image of a Vietnam veteran, who returns to Vietnam again a couple of years after the Vietnam War in order to rescue American prisoners who were forgotten by the U. S. government. The research question in this paper is why these films were so popular in that period? And what kind of respond did these movies want from audiences? First of all, it is necessary to clarify the historical context in which these films took place. During the period of 1980s, American people were immersing in a condition called the Vietnam syndrome (Croteau and Hoynes 2003, p. 175), they were shameful of the defeat in Southeast Asia. In essence, the revival of national self-confidence was the primary mission in that time. As a result, the appearance of Rambo stirred up this important task, it through the power of mass media brought the United States citizens returning to the b attlefield of the Vietnam War, and it altered the end of the story. In this renewed battlefield, American soldiers were all good guys and victors, they won the pride, strength and glory for America. It is not difficult to find that these films were just the projection of Reagans political declaration in the 1980s, which called for a kind of redemption for the shame of loss in Vietnam, and helped American citizens move out from the Vietnam syndrome, to re-establish American pride and national image. Indeed, Americans did overcome the Vietnam syndrome in the late 1980s, which can be demonstrated by American peoples active support towards U. S. military action in Iraq, Panama, and the till now the events against terrorism (Croteau and Hoynes 2003). Apart from the impact of reviving American image, according to the statement of Susan Jeffords (1989), the representation of the Vietnam War was also an effective process of remasculinization of American society, which as well as another essential component of Reaganism. Above all, the social precondition of this process was, because of the defeat in Vietnam, the advent of feminism, and the generation gap occurring in American society, the stability of the traditionally social framework-patriarchy has been challenged, so, the primary mechanism for this renegotiation of patriarchal relations is through remasculinization, a revival of the images, abilities, and evaluations of men and masculinity in dominant U. S. culture (Jeffords 1989, in preface). There is the need to define the terms of patriarchy and masculinity referred here, it is relative to the analysis of the films characters in the later paragraphs. As Lerners (1986) conclusion, generally, patriarchy is the institutionalizati on of male dominancy over women, children, and even to the extent with the whole society. As for masculinity, which is a mechanism for the establishment of patriarchy, and is used to refer to the set of images, values, interests, and activities held important to a successful achievement of male adulthood in American cultures (Lerner 1986). Then, what can audiences get from the films returning to the Vietnam War? What meanings do these films represent to American peoples about remasculinization? In part one it is said that the representation of mass media could make new meaning on events, if plus the effect of narrative story, it may generate certain ideological resonance among audiences. The set films Rambo did successfully wield this point to represent the masculine American soldiers images on the screen, and to shape them as the victims of society, government and the war itself, in which even use the comparison between American soldiers unyieldingness with the governments weakness to set off Rambo and Braddocks masculine and heroic images. Following this kind of representation of the Vietnam War, audiences will normally resurrect the confidence and admiration on American soldiers. And consequently, it is largely effective to restore masculinity and male status in that time American society. Civil Rights and Social Justice Within Reagans political revolution, it was not enough to merely depend on hard body to manage a country well. He placed more emphasis on the unity and power of spirit. No matter in what kind of social system, all the dominant classes expect the citizens could enjoy and conform to its established civil rights and social justice, especially under the democratic regimes. In the late-1980s of America, there was another genre of films existing as well as the mid-1980s Vietnam films, which jointly formed the full heroism. There were many representative films in that period, in this section I picked out one of them to examine- Accused (1988), which is grounded in true occurrence that happened in 1983, six men gang- raped a woman on a pool table, and at that time no one of the onlookers stood out to rescue the victim. But after five years, when this crime was represented on the screen, a hero came out, who was the main male character- Kenneth Joyce, helping the victim-Sarah Tobias gain the victory of a justice war. This film from two aspects to indicate the powerful of justice system and the importance of civil rights. Firstly, through the comparison between Joyce with the rapists and onlookers, to enable audiences are easily to prefer and support Joyce, contrarily, to hate the rapists and onlookers, and hope them to be published by the law. Secondly, this film is able to bring audiences to think the questions as same as the characters. For example, besides Joyce, there was another person- Murphy, who also helped Sarah win the court case. In the early part of the film, the situation of Murphy is if she takes this case as a district attorney she maybe have the risk to defy her boss and lose the job, because in the district attorneys office no one is willing to try a case like this. So, at this time, audiences will have suspense whether or not Murphy will take the case for Sarah. Another question is about Joyce and his fraternity brother, who is one of the rapists. Most audiences maybe sustain a question that will Joyce accuse his best friend on the court to help a strange woman. The answer of these two questions is they do help Sarah to win the accusations, and the dynamic connecting them together is the justice system and the faith of defending self-right. It demonstrates the clear answers to audiences that civil rights can be protected no matter in what a tough situation, and in addition, justice and law could beyond any gap which including friendship and self-interest as well. Collectively, this perspective and the hard body image were both just the appeals of Reagans policy, for against the outside force, and shaping the powerfully national character, and turning back to the demotic condition, it relied on the morality and justice to maintain the country stability. Effects of Historical Films Through the demonstration in the former part, it is clear that some popular films are not simply used to entertain the masses, most time they are the representation of certain ideological meanings, political values and working to generate a kind of resonance. Majority material of films originates from real life and history, the main effectiveness of it is a sort of return, but the return possibly brings about different impact on audience in accordance with different era settings. For example, when the American citizens who were just under the period of Cold War and the Vietnam syndrome were watching Rambo, the feeling elevating from their deep heart was pride, excited and self-confident. However, if play these movies at the present, will it work as same as that in last century. So, there is a frequent question like what is the connotation of performing the past films in the context of modern society? And what is the impact on present politics? About this question, Fredric Jameson (1998) has raised a suggestion about contemporary historical films, which he called nostalgia films as well. In his respect, nostalgia films are necessarily based on the recognition by the viewer of pre-existing historical stereotypes, including the various styles of the period, it is thereby reduced to the mere narrative confirmation of those same stereotypes (p. 130). Maybe we can understand his words in this way: in modern society, we already know what events happened in the past, those nostalgia films thereby can do little more than offer the most predictable testimony features (Jameson 1998, p. 130), which means the collective perception and historical lessons that already existing in our mind. In a word, the function of this kind of historical films is apart from momentously political effectiveness, but concentrates on the pure application of visual images to represent the history by variously narrative story, in this process, the reality of history is substituted by symbolic images, the impact of the films of past genre for the present maybe more foregrounds a kind of propagation by means of abundant images (Boorstin 1961). According to this perspective, what the meanings of representation of history in contemporary films exactly is. The film genre relating with The Holocaust was a typical form of representation of history in the present society. It is effective to understand the question about historical films for contemporary people. The movies about the Holocaust mainly put weight on visual images and narrative truth to represent the horror of the Nazis final solution, and the innocent of victims (Hornstein and Jacobowitz, 2003). The contents of most these kind films generally emphasize two categories: one is to create a narrative story happened in the Holocaust or Auschwitz, and the other is the representation of a true historical story told by a survival who was witnessing the terrible disaster, in this way, the effects generating from these films are relative to absence and memory. For most people in present society, they are lack of the consciousness of the Holocaust, so, the representation of the Holocaust could offset this block of absence in their idea. And for majority viewers, what they get from these films are mainly a sort of ethical shock and moral education. Just as many scholars, in their reaches of the representation of the Holocaust, they all emphasize the term of memory, or we can say the Holocaust memory, which is a kind of memory cannot be forgotten (Apel, 2002; Adorno, 1995; Novik, 2000; Flinkelstein, 2003). However, among the various critique of the representation of the Holocaust, the statement of Flinkelstein (2003) is a little bit different from that of Jameson about the question of the historical films effects. Flinkelstein (2003) regards Holocaust memory as an indispensable ideological weapon, due to it not only effects on morality, but also has significant political meanings. It helps the United States successfully cast itself as a victim state. To sum up, maybe the statement of Jameson is a bit of passive, which is too focus on the passive effects of visual images of historical films to overlook the affects of films on ideology and the audience agency, by which could produce and instill a kind of worldview and social values among the present society (Hall et al., 1980). The various images here are consistent with that voiced by Debord (1995), which express the world autonomously, and mediate spectacle between people in todays consumer society. However, films are made by people and influenced by dominant culture, it therefore naturally serves for the interests of dominant power (Williams, 1980). For instance, the representation of Holocaust could arouse peoples consciousness of human rights and eagerness of racial equality, which is simultaneously acting on present political event anti-terrorism. As a result, maybe we can say that the effects of historical films in contemporary society are depending on the transmission of i deological propaganda to meet the political demands. Conclusion This paper is through the examination of films, which is one component of mass media, to elaborate that media is not a simple channel to provide entertainment for audiences, it also could transfer and generate certain ideological meanings in different contexts, and consequently produces a kind of impact on the social relations or ideological resonance among viewers. And in this process, representation has played an important role. The reason is that, representation as one fundamental function of media not only could reflect the world, but also be able to make things have new meanings, thereby, this capacity naturally has media served for politics and makes certain political ideas underlying films contents so as to achieve another effects of media, which is apart from providing amusement, but referring to a more broad domain including politics, culture and social relations. However, as we known, ideology has different implications relying on the different contexts it is used. Such as the films made in Reagan era most probably has different effects on that time people and present audiences. For contemporary society, the historical films have double effects, one is to remind the memory of present people and to commemorate certain historical events, the other one is to affect contemporary politics by means of the ideology embedded in those films.

The Murder of Helen Jewett by Patricia Cline Cohen Essay -- Murder Hel

The Murder of Helen Jewett by Patricia Cline Cohen   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In The Murder of Helen Jewett, Patricia Cohen uses one of the most trivial murders during the 1800’s to illustrate the sexiest society accommodations to the privileged, hypocritical tunneled views toward sexual behavior, and the exploitation of legal codes, use of tabloid journalism, and politics. Taking the fact that woman was made from taking a rib from man was more than biblical knowledge, but incorporated into the male belief that a woman’s place is determined by the man. Helen had the proper rearing a maid servant, but how did she fall so far from grace. Judge Weston properly takes credit for rearing her with the proper strictness and education. Was Helen seduced at an early age and introduced to sexual perversions that were more persuasive that the bible belt life that the Weston’s tried to live? Was Helen simply a woman who knew how to use what she had to get what she wanted? Through personal correspondence, legal documentation, census reports, paintings, and newspapers we are able to make our own determinations. Cohen provides more than enough background and history to allow any one to make their own opinion how the murder of a woman could be turned into a side show at a circus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Helen Jewett, a prominent New York prostitute, was murdered and not only was this rare but a heinous crime. Helen’s murder brought to the forefront the industry of prostitution. This would include the owners, managers, and the clients.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the Victorian era, in New York City, men and women roles within the society were as different as night and day. A man regardless of his extra curricular activities could still maintain a very prevalent place in society. A woman’s worth was not only based family name which distinguished her class and worth, but also her profession if that was applicable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During this time in society the industry of prostitution was an economic gold mine. The women operate the brothel while very distinguished men in the community own and take care of the up keep. The brothel keepers are seen as nothing more than common home wrecking whores. However, the owners of the brothels are viewed as successful business men.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For example, John Livingston, brother to President Jackson’s, Sec of State, own the 41 Thomas St brothel. Men of great wealth and statue were frequent to... ...use. This was customary for Richard to do. As the young suitor made his way up the steps Helen greeted him by saying, Richard I’m glad that you could make it. Helen retired to her room with her suitor and they remained there for the some time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Helen emerged from her room around 11:00 pm asking for a bottle of wine and Mrs. Townsend delivered the wine and engaged in brief conversation while noticing the young man lying on the bed reading. She was very familiar with Robinson and was able to say without a doubt that he was the one that was in the bedroom with Helen. No one saw him leave nor did anyone let him out. Mrs. Townsend testified that a man had knocked on her door asking to be let out, but told him to have his woman to come and get the key. No one returned for the key so there is no possible logical explanation of how Richard got out of the house, nor was a logical possibility of how anyone else could have gotten in the house.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There were also several eye witnesses to the fact that Robinson was the owner of the cloak and that the hatchet used in the murder resembled the hatchet missing from Hoaxie’s store. Hoaxie just so happened to be Robinson’s boss.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Murder of Helen Jewett by Patricia Cline Cohen Essay -- Murder Hel The Murder of Helen Jewett by Patricia Cline Cohen   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In The Murder of Helen Jewett, Patricia Cohen uses one of the most trivial murders during the 1800’s to illustrate the sexiest society accommodations to the privileged, hypocritical tunneled views toward sexual behavior, and the exploitation of legal codes, use of tabloid journalism, and politics. Taking the fact that woman was made from taking a rib from man was more than biblical knowledge, but incorporated into the male belief that a woman’s place is determined by the man. Helen had the proper rearing a maid servant, but how did she fall so far from grace. Judge Weston properly takes credit for rearing her with the proper strictness and education. Was Helen seduced at an early age and introduced to sexual perversions that were more persuasive that the bible belt life that the Weston’s tried to live? Was Helen simply a woman who knew how to use what she had to get what she wanted? Through personal correspondence, legal documentation, census reports, paintings, and newspapers we are able to make our own determinations. Cohen provides more than enough background and history to allow any one to make their own opinion how the murder of a woman could be turned into a side show at a circus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Helen Jewett, a prominent New York prostitute, was murdered and not only was this rare but a heinous crime. Helen’s murder brought to the forefront the industry of prostitution. This would include the owners, managers, and the clients.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the Victorian era, in New York City, men and women roles within the society were as different as night and day. A man regardless of his extra curricular activities could still maintain a very prevalent place in society. A woman’s worth was not only based family name which distinguished her class and worth, but also her profession if that was applicable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During this time in society the industry of prostitution was an economic gold mine. The women operate the brothel while very distinguished men in the community own and take care of the up keep. The brothel keepers are seen as nothing more than common home wrecking whores. However, the owners of the brothels are viewed as successful business men.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For example, John Livingston, brother to President Jackson’s, Sec of State, own the 41 Thomas St brothel. Men of great wealth and statue were frequent to... ...use. This was customary for Richard to do. As the young suitor made his way up the steps Helen greeted him by saying, Richard I’m glad that you could make it. Helen retired to her room with her suitor and they remained there for the some time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Helen emerged from her room around 11:00 pm asking for a bottle of wine and Mrs. Townsend delivered the wine and engaged in brief conversation while noticing the young man lying on the bed reading. She was very familiar with Robinson and was able to say without a doubt that he was the one that was in the bedroom with Helen. No one saw him leave nor did anyone let him out. Mrs. Townsend testified that a man had knocked on her door asking to be let out, but told him to have his woman to come and get the key. No one returned for the key so there is no possible logical explanation of how Richard got out of the house, nor was a logical possibility of how anyone else could have gotten in the house.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There were also several eye witnesses to the fact that Robinson was the owner of the cloak and that the hatchet used in the murder resembled the hatchet missing from Hoaxie’s store. Hoaxie just so happened to be Robinson’s boss.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

A Bruised Way of Life :: essays research papers

A Bruised Way of Life   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"BONG!† is the one and only word that anyone in my family has to say to bring back the memories of an incident that happened at the age of eight. Oh, but this horrifying happening couldn’t have happened in my home, it had to have happened in the middle of my favorite place in the world. None other than the original Downtown Disney, on the most beautiful day there has ever been at the beginning of December. The day was sunny, cloudless, and warm. Or at least warm to me after my accident.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First, let me take you back in time. To the day that changed the way my family would make fun of me for the rest of my natural life. On the second day of our vacation to Walt Disney World, my parents, brother, and I decided that we all wanted to get some early shopping into our schedule before actually â€Å"hitting† all of the major parks that Disney World is known for. The usual routine for this area of vacationing was usually left up to the women in our family since it is the shopping area. Everything was going fine, going through the shops and looking at all of the merchandise we wished we were able to afford, when my brother, Brandon, spotted the water fountains that came up from the ground to play in. Before long, Brandon was begging and pleading my parents to go play in the water with the other kids. Even though they were strangers. My parents, of course, said yes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the first few minutes of Brandon’s fun in the water, I just had to join in. There was no way that I was going to let my brother have all of the fun, then decide to shove it in my face. No way was I going to let that happen to me. By the time a couple of minutes had passed, both my brother and I, were completely soaked from head to toe. That didn’t stop the fun though! The two of us were having such a great time that it had become a chore for our parents to get us to stop. Although, it seemed like a game for Brandon and me! Brandon was the first to finally give in to my parents and stop playing so we could do some more shopping. But getting me out was a totally different story.

Transhumanist Philosophy Essay -- Future Science Fiction

Imagine that you are able to teleport to the not too distant future. In this world you discover that disease and poverty are no longer causes for human suffering, world hunger has become eliminated from society, and space travel is as easy as snapping your fingers. Cryonics, nanotechnology, cloning, genetic enhancement, artificial intelligence, and brain chips are all common technologies at a doctor’s office. You gasp as a friendly sounding electronic voice cries out, â€Å"Welcome to the future Natural!† You are unsure of whether being called a Natural is an insult or not, so you feign a half-hearted hello at the posthuman in front of you. Getting over the initial shock you ask the posthuman, â€Å"Who are you?† The posthuman gives an electronic sounding chuckle and shakes his head. He replies, â€Å"I am a Posthuman, and you Natural, are in Utopia. Welcome.† Sounds pretty science-fiction based right? Well, to those who follow the Transhumanist philosophy, a â€Å"utopian† world could be a reality. Susan Schneider a philosophy professor at University of Pennsylvania defines Transhumanism as a â€Å"philosophical, cultural, and political movement which holds that the human species is now only in a comparatively early phase and that its very evolution will be altered by developing technologies† (271). In simple terms, transhumanists believe that the human species is in its early phase. Our species is a work in progress and our evolution will be altered by advancing technologies. With these advancements in technology, transhumanists have optimistic plans about the future. Transhumanists hope that as our current technology advances we will soon be able to create superhumans or â€Å"posthumans†. According to the World Tanshumanist Association a... ...d, working definition of what a person is, enhancing will be newest fad. Humankind is on an irreversible evolutionary journey where super-intelligence will be the normal IQ for children, war and death are no longer terms in the english dictionary, and being 1,000 years old is considered young. It is a bright and prosperous future looking through the lens of a transhumanist. One that I cannot wait to see through bionic eyes. Works Cited Brooks, R. A. 2003. Prologue, In: Flesh and Machines: How Robots Will Change Us, Vintage. Elliott, C. 2003. Humanity 2.0. The Wilson Quarterly, 27(4): 13(8). Schneider, S. 2008. Future Minds: Transhumanism, Cognitive Enhancement, and the Nature of Persons. Forthcoming in: Penn Bioethics Reader. Accessed online July 20, 2010: http:/repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=neuroethics pubs

Developing curriculum for the resident teacher program

Literature Review is the most critical portion of a thesis as it revolves about and builds upon the work that has been antecedently done in the topic being researched. There are several articles available on the subject of REP nevertheless non all of them concentrate on developing a course of study for the occupant as instructor plan. A systematic reappraisal of literature was conducted utilizing PubMed and Google Scholar. Keywords used for the hunt were: occupant as instructor, learning accomplishments, course of study. A list of 223 articles published from 1950 to 2009 was retrieved which was cross checked with the published updated selected bibliography on the occupant as instructors subject. Extensive reappraisal of the full texts of the articles available and the abstracts resulted in choice of 29 articles which chiefly focused on enterprises for bettering the occupants learning accomplishments. â€Å" Residents in all subjects serve as instructors and function theoretical accounts for pupils, co-workers, and other staff † . ( Residents-as-Teachers Programs in Psychiatry: A Systematic Review ) . Residents work closely with medical pupils in peculiar and have considerable chances to learn and act upon pupils ‘ cognition, attitudes, and behaviours. Since the early 1970s, the literature on the occupants ‘ learning function has emphasized the demand to develop occupants as instructors every bit good as to measure the content and results of instructional plans. Overall, the literature shows that occupants wish to educate ; they want to be qualified as ‘teachers and leaders ‘ . Most of the research available has been conducted in USA, UK and other developed states, where the government organisations are back uping this function of â€Å" occupants as instructors † . â€Å" Residency † is a medical preparation phase of graduation. AA † occupant doctor † A orA merely resident ; A is person who has already completed the needed grade in medical specialty. They are besides referred to asA registrarsA in the U.K and other â€Å" Commonwealth † states. They besides pattern medical specialty under the disposal of the to the full licensedA doctors, by and large in infirmaries and clinics. A residence frequently comes after the internshipA twelvemonth or at some points includes the internship twelvemonth as the ‘first twelvemonth ‘ of the plan. It can besides come after the phase ofA family. Here the general practician is trained or qualifies in a sub-specialty. â€Å" Surveies estimate that occupants spend up to 20 % of their clip on learning activities-regardless of their future calling programs † ( â€Å" Resident-as-Teacher † Course of study: Do Teaching Courses Make a Difference? ) as suggested by Maria A. Wamsley, MD, Katherine A. Julian, MD, Joyce E. Wipf, MD in their article. Harmonizing to the writers all occupants know and understand their duty and function every bit far as learning the medical pupils is concerned. Apart from the pupils they besides teach housemans and other fellow occupants. As these research consequences were based on studies ; they have besides demonstrated how occupants non merely bask learning but see it an of import portion of their ain survey. Second, they indicate how much the occupants prefer learning on call patients instead than go toing talks etc. Another study that had been conducted for the research above highlighted how the medical pupils anticipated that 1/3 of their cognition was attr ibuted to the instruction in the house. A study was conducted in 2001 that showed that '55 % of residence managers ‘ idea that the plans offered to occupants were official instructions sing learning accomplishments. It is noticeable how â€Å" resident as-teacher † course of study is going more widespread in the different residence plans, still the managers of these surveyed plans communicate that there is a demand for â€Å" more resident direction in learning † . Another point is that apart from holding published surveies available that describe the classs, many of these, need to be evaluated for their effectivity. Another cogent evidence is that these classs no uncertainty develop pupils ‘ rating of participants. There are 3 nonrandomized restricted surveies that calculate the evaluations for the pupils and they showed through statistics a noticeable betterment in resident ratings. â€Å" However, when impact is assessed by consequence size, the per centum alteration in ratings after the intercession is little ( 2 % to 11 % ) , in portion due to the concentration of rating tonss in the upper half of the graduated table. Yet in the largest controlled survey, these differences resulted in occupants being perceived as â€Å" first-class † instead than â€Å" really good † instructors. ( Maria A. Wamsley ; et Al ) We can further understand the importance of REP with the statement that these occupants are non merely specializer in their chosen Fieldss but they are besides learners or scholars i.e. â€Å" larning on the occupation † . ( Basuri ; et Al ) Majority of their acquisition takes topographic point while they are executing their clinical responsibilities and pattern. The latter can be farther illustrated by the undermentioned illustration. The infusion was taken from the article related to Mount Sinai Hospital and the Resident Education Program. The Institute for Medical Education at the Mount Sinai School had developed a â€Å" Resident Teaching Development Program ( RTDP ) † in the twelvemonth 2001. It was a 7 hr multidisciplinary plan that had been initiated in this country of module development. The intent was to concentrate on the significance of the occupants as â€Å" medical pedagogues † in IME. The chief aim of this plan was to construct learning accomplishm ents in the occupants who wished to learn the pupils at the school of Medicine at Mount Sinai. It would in bend prove beneficial for the betterment of the â€Å" quality of clinical instruction at the Mount Sinai Hospital and its affiliates † . The development portion of the plan had the squad reexamining all go outing work that had been done in the country. What were the other establishments making and how they were making it, and so on? They besides consulted pedagogues and conducted â€Å" needs appraisal † studies. After all the work they structured the class in a manner that it non merely included â€Å" active acquisition and chances for pattern, integrating of the occupants ‘ ain experiences, feedback on their usage of learning behaviours, and job resolution activities † . Another of import portion of all this is that the autonomous acquisition encourages the occupants â€Å" to self-assess and make individualised instruction ends for themselves â €  . The above clearly explains how of import the REP is non merely for any infirmary or medical school but for the practicing occupants every bit good as the housemans and pupils who are go toing these classs. A research done on the competence based construction ( B. Kanna ; et Al ) suggested in its decision that â€Å" Internal medical specialty occupants mentality in research can be significantly improved utilizing a research course of study offered through a structured and dedicated research rotary motion † . It is further demonstrated by the advancement that can be seen in the satisfaction of the occupants, the rate of engagement in assorted academic activities and result of the research for occupants since the beginning of the â€Å" research rotary motion † in different countries of the plans and preparations It is an established fact that occupants as pedagogues plan was a alone thought that has been at work since 1960 ‘s. It has resulted in a positive bend out of the occupants and the pupils who are both profiting from such acquisition and skill based plans. All the research that has been conducted resulted in the same thought that more and more chances should be given to these occupants and their accomplishments and capablenesss should be improved so that larning can increase. One interesting fact was frequently highlighted by different research workers in their studies. It was whether learning improves the accomplishments of the practicing occupants or non? A hypothesis for a research highlights the undermentioned by saying that whether a â€Å" skilled instructor has an increased likeliness of going a competent instructor † or is the instance face-to-face. Their probe and studies lead them to happen that their consequence supported the hypothesis. â€Å" learning improv ed the sensed professional competence of medical doctor. â€Å" ( Basuri et al ) . However it was mostly subjective with small quantitative grounds, still they did non happen any survey that disproved this point. In the first chapter we had established in the issues sing the function of the occupants that emphasis needs to be given on how to construction a more efficient REP plan that will heighten non merely the accomplishments of these occupants but in bend improve the quality of larning that takes topographic point. Another survey found in Medical Teacher ( Vol. 24, No. 1, 2002 ; Busari et Al ) indicated that the occupants non merely idea of learning the medical pupils as their chief duty but that they besides learnt in the procedure. However, it is noticeable that learning is limited due to clip restrictions that may be needed for the readying and conductivity of the class coupled with better instruction accomplishments. In this survey the positions of Stewart & A ; Feltovich ( 1988 ) were besides confirmed who stated that â€Å" occupants are in a alone place to learn and measure pupils because of their propinquity to the pupils † . Many of the positions by the occupants supported this impression and included the undermentioned points: They felt that the occupants were voluntarily available and had more contact clip with pupils They were in a better place every bit far as the rating of the pupils was concerned. They were easy to near as they were ever in the infirmary and on responsibility From the pupils point of position the occupants were better at explicating things. Even though there was a common understanding that instruction was the one of the chief functions that occupants had, there was a significant deficiency of the instruction clip and the know-how which caused hinderances in their function. This lowered their place to person merely as an attending staff member. Many a times it was noted by the occupants that while learning the pupils their ain accomplishments were tested and they has clip to critically reflect on their ain cognition. One should see it to be an of import motivational point which leads these occupants to constantly update themselves and therefore the procedure of acquisition goes on.2.4 DecisionFrom the treatment and positions presented above the decision is obvious. Before get downing the chapter it was established that work in this country was required for Pakistan as this construct is new to this portion of the universe. Although establishments like AKU and ISRA are sREPping up their work in the field of REP much more h as to be done. Developing a course of study for this country is so a challenge as to understand the significance of the attempts is required. From the above and many other treatments already published it is observed that occupants were non given the really accredited for the work that they have done or the occupation they perform. They have non been provided adequate clip to better their accomplishments and these consequences in certain oversights in the instruction of assorted plans. We can see this from the survey conducted in another article which stated that there was cogent evidence that â€Å" instruction classs improve resident self-assessed instruction behaviours, assurance as a instructor, and consequence in higher scholar ratings of occupants. † ( Wamsley et al. ) it can be stated â€Å" that based on the seen ‘positive effects ‘ , one might reason that all residence plans should necessitate occupant learning direction. † There are many obstructio ns nevertheless, sing the execution of the class. Teaching different plans prove to be ‘time intensive ‘ for both the occupants and module. It is besides a challenge to supply the occupants with uninterrupted larning clip. Majority of the clip there is no support for making and learning these classs. â€Å" Competing curricular demands for preparation may ensue in fewer time-intensive course of study. † Furthermore we can set up that these limitations might be a contributional factor towards the fact that about â€Å" half of all residence plans do non supply formal direction in learning. † We have at the beginning of this chapter highlighted the importance for REP with respects to Pakistan and besides have identified countries where work needs to be done. Pakistani universities particularly those covering with medical specialty and infirmaries like Aga Khan need to set in more attempt in bettering the position of occupants as instructors. Intelligibly we have sREPped into this sphere and no uncertainty worked increasingly but every bit compared to what other states have done we are still far behind. Thus we will reason our reappraisal here and further this research thesis to chapter 3 which will concentrate on the demand appraisal for the occupant as pedagogue plan and the development of the course of study for the said. Medical pupils often consider occupants to be their most of import instructors and look frontward to a teaching function during residence ( Barrow, 1966 ) . Another survey, conducted more than twenty five old ages subsequently, confirms these findings ( Bing-You & A ; Sproul, 1992 ) . Brown ( 1970 ) , in a survey of housestaff attitude towards instruction, found that occupants provide the bulk of clinical direction. Harmonizing to his findings, no 1 is more available to pupils and junior housestaff through all facets of medical attention, even through the dark. He argues that without occupants, clinical module would necessitate to be available 24 hours a twenty-four hours. He found that all occupants consider themselves to be instructors, and pass 20A ­25 % of their clip supervision, measuring, or learning others. Residents besides attribute 40-50 % of their ain instruction to other housestaff. These findings are in maintaining with more recent surveies. Undergraduate surgery pupil s credited housestaff for supplying about one tierce of the cognition acquired during their rotary motion ( Lowry, 1976 ) . In another survey ( Bing- You & amp ; Harvey, 1991 ) , pupils estimated that one tierce of their cognition could be attributed to housestaff instruction. Steward and Feltovich ( 1988 ) argue that â€Å" for learning medical pupils, no 1 is more available or better qualified than a occupant † ( p. 4 ) . Residents occupy an intermediate place between module and pupils in footings of cognition, authorization, experience, and are less intimidating to pupils. Their propinquity, in footings of degree of preparation, enables them to better understand the practical demands and jobs of pupils. Tremonti and Biddle ( 1982 ) emphasis that occupants ‘ functions as instructors are complimentary, and non redundant, with that of module. Residents concentrate on day-to-day patient attention issues on a big figure of patients and pass more clip on the ward and at the bedside. Faculty, on the other manus, emphasis in depth treatment, psychosocial issues, and job work outing accomplishments on a little figure of patients. The fact that occupants spend more clip with pupils and are â€Å" closer † to their degree does non needfully do them effectual instructors. Irby ( 1978 ) found that although pupils rated occupants as being more involved in their clinical instruction, occupants were thought to be less effectual than module. Merely 10 % of pupils in another survey ( Brown, 1971 ) â€Å" felt that housestaff instruction was peculiarly effectual when it was done at all † ( p. 93 ) . Wilkerson, Lesky, and Medio, ( 1986 ) studied the learning accomplishments of occupants during work unit of ammunitions. â€Å" The consequences aˆÂ ¦indicated that during work rounds the occupants exhibited few of the instruction behaviours that can heighten acquisition in a patient attention puting†¦ , that pupils and housemans were frequently inactive members of the work squad, with the bulk of clinical determinations being made by occupants Clinical logical thinking, job resolution and supervised determination doing were non recognized as acquisition ends that might be pursued while charts were being reviewed and patients were being visited†¦ .The occupant appeared to gestate instruction as a schoolroom activity and compare it to talking † ( p. 827 ) . Lewis and Kappelman ( 1984 ) noted that occupants most often use an autocratic talk manner in learning. Ironically, this was occupants ‘ least favorite attack as scholars. Medio, Wilkerson, Lesky, and Borkan ( 1988 ) observed occupants during work unit of ammunitions. Residents did non frequently deliberately use day-to-day patient brushs for learning. When they did mean to learn during work unit of ammunitions, they normally provided brief talks. Not merely did the survey show the limited repertory of learning accomplishments used by most occupants, but it besides delineated the many instruction chances that were being overlooked. For most occupants, learning had become synonymous with prepared talks and was, hence, incompatible with the unpredictable demands of patient attention ( p. 215 ) . Meleca and Pearsol ( 1988 ) impulse that occupants be made cognizant of and take advantage of their duties and â€Å" docile minutes † ( i.e. , learning chances ) . One survey ( Bergen, Stratos, Berman, & A ; Skeff, 1993 ) compared the clinical instruction abilities of occupants and go toing doctors in the inmate and talk scenes. Overall, occupants and attentions received similar evaluations. Where there was a difference, module were rated higher than occupants. Of note, evaluations for both groups were by and large low in each class proposing the demand for engagement in REPs by both groups. Residents by and large have a positive â€Å" attitude † towards their function as instructors. The huge bulk of occupants enjoy learning ( 89 % of 68 respondents ) ( Apter, et al. , 1988 ) . In this survey, enjoyment of instruction was positively associated with increased readying clip and perceptual experience of positive consequences of learning. Bing-You and Harvey ( 1991 ) are the first to turn to whether an association between a positive attitude towards learning and perceptual experiences towards learning are associated with better pupil ratings of learning. Twenty one ( of 24 ) occupants completed a questionnaire in order to study their attitude towards learning. They were later evaluated by 3rd twelvemonth medical pupils over a one twelvemonth period. Residents ‘ desire to learn was most strongly correlated ( 0.77 ) with active engagement of pupils and was the lone â€Å" attitude † correlating with overall learning effectivity ( 0.54 ) . Unfortunately, no correlativity was found between pupil evaluations of occupants as instructors and occupants ‘ self- appraisal of learning effectivity. Of note, occupants holding participated in a REP were more confident as instructors, were rated more extremely in actively affecting pupils and in supplying way and feedback, and were besides more confident as instructors. Although occupants have major learning duties, grounds exists that they may non have adequate support or readying for this function and that barriers hinder optimum instruction. A US national study of general surgical residence plan managers ( Anderson, Anderson, & A ; Scholten, 1990 ) posed three inquiries: ( 1 ) To what extent do surgical occupants Teach and measure medical pupils? ( 2 ) How are surgical occupants prepared for and evaluated on their instruction duties? ( 3 ) What are the surgical plan managers sentiments approximately occupants as instructors? Virtually all ( 98 % ) surgical occupants had learning duties. However, merely 36 % of plans provided occupants with written ratings of their instruction, and 60 % of plan managers did non believe it was of import for occupants to have formal preparation in learning accomplishments. Merely 14 % of occupants in this survey had attended workshops on learning. Two other surveies ( Callen & A ; Roberts, 1980, Brown, 1971 ) study similar findings. Thirteen per centum of 136 psychopathology occupants, and 15 % of 28 surgery occupants had anterior teacher preparation. A more favorable proportion ( i.e. , 38 % of 21 occupants ) is cited in one survey ( Bing-You & A ; Harvey, 1991 ) . This likely reflects the writer ‘s outstanding function in advancing and developing resident instruction accomplishments at his establishment. Schiffman ( 1986 ) asks: â€Å" How so do house officers learn how to learn? The obvious reply is that the house officer has had twenty old ages of observation of his or her ain instructors upon which to pattern his or her manner † ( p. 55 ) . This remains unequal. If most occupants do non hold prior teacher instruction, do they at least receive utile feedback on the instruction that they do? In 1978, the American Association of Medical Colleges ( AAMC ) surveyed sections of internal medical specialty, paediatricss, psychopathology, surgery, and household medical specialty ( Tonesk, 1979 ) . Merely 87 of 319 ( 27 % ) plans included learning public presentation as portion of occupants ‘ ratings, and those that did normally merely required a planetary appraisal of learning ability. The information on supervising of instruction is every bit black. Apter, Metzger, and Glassroth ( 1988 ) study that merely 13 % ( of 68 ) occupants felt that module supervising of their instruction was optimum, and 58 % indicated that they had ne'er been supervised. In one survey ( Callen & A ; Roberts, 1980 ) , 78 % ( of 136 ) psychopathology occupants thought that â€Å" the chief ground occupants are required to learn medical pupils is to liberate up clip, clip for module to make research and other things. † On norm, these occupants estimated that they spent 9 hours per hebdomad in learning activities. Despite this big learning committedness, merely 32 % of occupants thought that they should be required to go to REPs. When the inquiry of go toing a resident REP is posed otherwise, 53 % ( Apter, et al. , 1988 ) to 66 % ( Brown, 1 970 ) of occupants stated they would be interested in go toing a workshop if it were offered. In add-on to less than satisfactory support for their instruction function, occupants face other hindrances. Time and conflicting demands seem to be most of import. Eighty seven per centum of occupants cited either their ain or their pupils ‘ time- devouring ward responsibilities as the greatest obstruction to learning ( Apter, et al. , 1988 ) . Post call exhaustion was besides an of import factor ( 49 % ) doing learning hard. Kates and Lesser ( 1985 ) place what they consider to be major jobs faced by occupants when learning. They quote the AAMC study cited above ( Tonesk, 1979 ) and admonish station alumnus plans for the deficiency of accent placed on occupants ‘ learning function. Beyond this, occupants ‘ may be ill-defined about what their existent function is in footings of oversing – learning junior housestaff, and every bit mentioned, they are normally unprepared for their instruction map. Residents are normally unfamiliar with the larning aims of the juniors they supervise and teach. Despite this, they are normally called upon to assist measure them. The occupants ‘ ain supervisors frequently provide unequal supervising and support for occupants. This, in itself, may understate the importance of learning for the occupant. Finally, few plans make any specific attempts to organize instruction chances for occupants with a particular involvement in instruction. Admiting the many jobs faced by occupants when instruction, and their less than optimum readying for their instruction function, non much is known sing the demands of occupants in footings of planing a REP. Boule and Chamberland ( in imperativeness ) addressed this issue from a occupants ‘ position by inquiring them â€Å" What sort of preparation do you necessitate to learn more efficaciously? † Eighty occupants responded. Two tierces of their replies corresponded with demands normally addressed by REPs, while one third were concerned with medical competence and clip direction. Nine cardinal words were most often cited in their responses ( in order of precedence ) : ( 1 ) division of work / instruction clip, ( 2 ) instruction methods, ( 3 ) medical cognition, ( 4 ) aims, ( 5 ) synthesis accomplishments, ( 6 ) feedback, ( 7 ) motive, ( 8 ) psychological science applied to instruction, and ( 9 ) pupil jobs. More research needs to be done in the country of the instructor instruction demands of occupants. Other positions and other beginnings of information should congratulate that of occupants. Empirical Research on Resident REPs An extended reappraisal of the medical instruction literature was undertaken to place bing surveies of resident REPs. Twenty-six mentions were identified between 1963 and 1991. Of the 26 studies, one survey was described in three different publications ( Greenberg, et al. , 1984 ; Greenberg, Jewett, & A ; Goldberg, 1988 ; Jewett, et al. , 1982 ) , and two surveies were reported twice ( Camp & A ; Hoban, 1988 ; Camp, Hoban, & A ; Katz, 1985 ) and ( Lazerson, 1972 ; Lazerson, 1973 ) . Furthermore, chapter nine ( Edwards, Kissling, Paluche, & A ; Marier, 1988b ) of Edwards and Marier ‘s ( 1988 ) book, Clinical Teaching for Medical Residents: Roles Techniques, and Programs, outlines a resident REP used for two surveies ( â€Å" Phase I † and â€Å" Phase II ) that were reported elsewhere ( Edwards, Kissling, Brannan, Plauche, & A ; Marier, 1988a ; Edwards, Kissling, Plauche, & A ; Marier, 1988 ) . This plan was besides used for a 3rd survey ( Edwards, Kissling, Plauche, & A ; Marier, 1986 ) . Therefore, a sum of 21 different surveies and 19 different resident REPs were identified. Of the 19 resident REPs, two really depict undergraduate medical school electives: one offered as a 3rd twelvemonth elective ( Craig & A ; Page, 1987 ) , the other as a 4th twelvemonth elective ( Sobral, 1989 ) . Another plan ( Lazerson, 1972 ; Lazerson, 1973 ) can be more accurately described as a learning experience under supervising instead than a resident REP. This survey describes th e experience of psychopathology occupants given the chance to learn undergraduate psychological science at a community college. Although these occupants received feedback on their instruction accomplishments, no formal instructor preparation was undertaken. Consequently, merely 18 surveies described 16 plans in which occupants underwent a course of study with a specific end of developing learning accomplishments. A database was created pull outing information from all surveies for easy comparing. The information was organized into the following Fieldss: ( 1 ) Engagement ( voluntary or compulsory ) ; ( 2 ) N ( i.e. , figure ) ; ( 3 ) Forte ( of occupants ) ; ( 4 ) degree ( i.e. , postgraduate twelvemonth ( PGY ) of preparation of occupant ) ; ( 5 ) Goals & A ; Objectives ( of REP ) ; ( 6 ) Methodology ( i.e. , analyze design ) ; ( 7 ) Program Format ; ( 8 ) Instructor ( s ) ( i.e. , professional pedagogues or doctors ) ; ( 9 ) Consultation ( s ) ( i.e. , whether or non professional pedagogues were involved in plan development or execution ) ; ( 10 ) Timeline ( i.e. , figure of hours over what clip frame ) ; ( 11 ) Content ( of REP ) ; ( 12 ) Program Evaluation ( consequences ) ; ( 13 ) Study Results ; ( 14 ) Problems ( identified ) ; ( 15 ) Recommendations ( practical ) . The first occupant REP reported ( Husted & A ; Hawkins, 1963 ) dates back to 1963. This instance survey was initiated as a pilot undertaking. The research workers asked section presidents to ask for two occupants each to take part in the plan. Give the voluntary nature of the class, occupants could worsen the invitation. A sum of seven occupants participated in the six â€Å" lecture-discussion † Sessionss. No effort was made to measure outcome steps. Even the plan itself was non assessed with any asperity. The writers conclude that â€Å" participants were certain plenty that the pilot venture was of sufficient benefit to them to take to the suggestion that the orientation be repeated and the invitations expanded†¦ † ( p. 115 ) . The learning function of occupants has become progressively more prominent over the old ages, with 17 of the 26 mentions being published since 1985, and the recent publication of books on the topic ( Edwards & A ; Marier, 1988 ; Schwenk & A ; Whitman, 1984 ; Weinholtz & A ; Edwards, 1992 ) . A sum-up of the medical instruction literature on this topic will be the focal point of the balance of chapter two. Engagement Engagement in the REP was â€Å" voluntary † in 9 surveies, â€Å" mandatary † in 6, and non stated in the staying 7. Assorted statements can be made for and against both schemes, but no decisions can be drawn from these surveies. Leting occupants to â€Å" opt-out † of REPs, nevertheless, may ensue in pretermiting those occupants who need it most. Forte General internal medical specialty is the most represented of all fortes among the surveies reviewed. Internal medical specialty occupants were involved in 11 of the 22 plans. Those surveies ( e.g. , Edwards, et al. , 1988 ) looking for differentiations between fortes by and large found no important differences. I, evel No consensus exists as to when is the best clip to present a occupant REP. A speedy glimpse at the mark audience ( i.e. , station alumnus twelvemonth of preparation ) of the assorted REPs outlined makes this clear. Five plans were geared to PGY 1 occupants and four plans were geared to all degrees of residence. Two plans were undergraduate medical school electives. Other degrees were the mark in five plans and no information was available for the staying six. Merely one survey ( Bing-You, 1990 ) addressed plan results in relation to degree of preparation. Further surveies are needed to specify the best clip to implement REPs. â€Å" Readiness † to larn, degree of professional competency, viing demands / handiness, and cost effectivity ( e.g. , concluding twelvemonth occupants merely have a short instruction calling staying ) are merely a few of the factors to be considered. Goals and Aims Goals and Aims varied well between plans. Although none of the plans officially stated the theoretical underpinnings from which the ends and aims emanated, the linguistic communication used to depict them is uncovering. The desire to â€Å" transportation † information is outstanding. Programs instead wanted to â€Å" introduce occupants with † ( Husted & A ; Hawkins, 1963 ) , â€Å" supply information † ( Brown, 1971 ) , â€Å" introduce constructs † ( Lewis & A ; Kappleman, 1984 ) , or have occupants â€Å" gain cognition / become familiar with † ( Camp & A ; Hoban, 1988 ; Camp, et al. , 1985 ) . Standard behavioral aims were besides common. For illustration, one plan ( Husted & A ; Hawkins, 1963 ) expected take parting occupants to be able to â€Å" ( a ) select the appropriate ( learning ) technique and ( B ) Begin to develop accomplishment in self-appraisal of their ability to efficaciously work in their instruction function † ( p. 111 ) , while another ( Edwards, et al. , 1988b ) expected occupants to â€Å" give feedback to scholars † ( p. 159 ) . The diction in two farther surveies alludes to constructivism: ( 1 ) â€Å" The workshop ‘s purpose is non to learn â€Å" learning accomplishments, † such as lecture or running a tutorial, but to research the organisational facets of oversing a pupil such as the relationship between the occupant and their ain supervisor, and their apprehension of the aims of the clerk ‘s rotary motion † ( italics mine ) ( Kates & A ; Lesser, 1985, p. 418 ) , and ( 2 ) â€Å" to s pread out the occupants ‘ construct of learning † ( italics mine ) ( Medio, et al. , 1988, p. 214 ) . Finally, one survey ( Edwards, et al. , 1988b ) had increased assurance in instruction ( cf. , learning self-efficacy ) as a plan end. Methodology It is beyond the range of this thesis to discourse the methodologic defects of the surveies reviewed. The patient- centred gait of infirmary pattern and postgraduate medical developing do it hard to run educational experiments in this context. The writers of the reviewed surveies should be commended for their attempts and advanced efforts to present and reply inquiries. Of the 22 database entries, 19 are instance surveies. Two of these make an effort at an experimental design: â€Å" quasi-experimental † ( Snell, 1989 ) , and â€Å" case-control, pre- and post- observation † ( Medio, et al. , 1988 ) . Both of these surveies used occupants who did non go to the REP as a comparing ( i.e. , control ) group. The mere fact that they did non take to go to makes them different ; any differences found between the two groups may merely as probably be attributed to the features of the persons in the several groups as to the intercession ( i.e. , REP ) . Decision from these survei es should be interpreted with cautiousness. One of the database references is a simple plan description with survey consequences reported elsewhere. The staying two surveies ( one of which is reported three times ) ( Edwards, et al. , 1988a ; Greenberg, et al. , 1984 ; Greenberg, et al. , 1988 ; Jewett, et al. , 1982 ) have a randomised instance control design. Both have a comparatively little entire figure of survey topics, 22 and 53 severally. Format Overall, an effort was made to utilize instructional methods that actively involve occupants. For the most portion, nevertheless, this merely meant holding occupants take portion in group treatments ( cf. , reliable activities e.g. , Collins, et al. , 1991 ) . Lave and Wenger ( 1991 ) , in their treatment of discourse and pattern, stress the of import differences â€Å" between speaking about a pattern from outside and speaking within it † ( p. 107 ) . They argue â€Å" that for fledglings so the intent is non to larn from talk as a replacement for legitimate peripheral engagement ; it is to larn to speak as a key to legalize peripheral engagement † ( original accent ) ( p. 109 ) . As discussed in an earlier subdivision of this chapter, Lave and Wenger ( 1991 ) distinguish between a acquisition course of study dwelling of located chances and a instruction course of study constructed for direction. From their position, so, larning becomes a inquiry of entree to legalize pattern as a larning resource instead than supplying direction. Most of the plans described, it seems, hold small foundation in a societal / situated position of grownup instruction. A few surveies, nevertheless, did effort to stress the of import function of experience as portion of the REP: microteaching, with and without video playback ( Lawson & A ; Harvill, 1980 ; Medio, et al. , 1988 ; Pristach, et al. , 1991 ; Snell, 1989 ) , and function playing ( Edwards, et al. , 1988b ; Sobral, 1989 ) . Timeline In Jarvis ‘ ( 1992 ) treatment of larning in the workplace, he reminds us â€Å" that there are two basic signifiers of experience: primary and secondary experience. The former involves the existent experience people have in a given state of affairs ; this type of experience molds their self-identity to a great extent. The latter involves experiences in which interaction or instruction occurs over and above the primary experience † ( p. 108-181 ) . Although microteaching and function playing may be ( or come near to being ) reliable activities, they would still be classified as secondary experiences from Jarvis ‘ point of position. It must be remembered that whether or non residency plans decide to develop and implement REPs, occupants will still hold major learning duties ( and chances ) . Most plans did non take specific advantage of occupants ‘ current learning assignments as a acquisition resource. One plan ( Snell, 1989 ) did reference that occupants had â€Å" an chance to pattern the ( freshly learned learning ) accomplishments on the wards during the hebdomads between Sessionss † ( italics mine ) ( p. 125 ) . Another plan, dwelling of two three-hour workshops, separated both workshops by 5 months so that â€Å" the experimental group had an chance to use these ( learning ) accomplishments in their day-to-day activities † ( italics mine ) ( P. 361 ) . Unfortunately, without construction and followup, pupils ( including occupants ) do non ever take advantage of chances. None of the plans specifically structured and included such learning activities. The first determination when make up one's minding on a timeline for a plan is make up one's minding whether to offer a â€Å" one-shot † or a longitudinal experience. A 2nd determination besides involves timing: should occupants take portion in a REP merely while they have learning duties? A plan based on a longitudinal experience while occupants have learning duties can take advantage of Jarvis ‘ alleged primary experiences. The plan developed as portion of this thesis was specifically designed with these thoughts in head and included a â€Å" Undertaking for the Week † between Sessionss ( see chapter three ) . A learning â€Å" undertaking † was assigned at the terminal of the each seminar based on that seminar ‘s content. A lab-coat pocket sized reminder card was handed out to occupants. The undertaking became the focal point of a contemplation ( and reappraisal ) exercising at the beginning of the following hebdomadal session. Of involvement, none of the surveies were specifically designed to mensurate the impact of a instruction duty itself on results steps. This is one of the research inquiries addressed by this thesis. In those surveies noticing on timeline, about half provided a longitudinal experience while the other half offered a â€Å" one- shooting † exposure ( e.g. , 7 hr â€Å" Teachathon † ( Maxmen, 1980 ) ) . Content Program content, where provided, variably included the undermentioned subjects: ( 1 ) theories / theoretical accounts of instruction, ( 2 ) theories / theoretical accounts of acquisition, ( 3 ) big group learning / lecture, ( 4 ) little group learning / treatment, ( 5 ) one-on- one instruction, ( 6 ) bedside instruction, and ( 7 ) rating / feedback. Program Evaluation All plans were rated favorably ; there was a high grade of satisfaction with both direction and content. Residents considered the experience valuable and utile. Study Results Impact of resident REPs. All but one of the surveies designed to look into the impact of resident REP demonstrated a positive consequence. Brown ( 1971 ) used a pre- and post- 50 point multiple pick trial to measure alterations in occupants ‘ cognition of instruction and acquisition. No important difference was found at the 0.05 degree ( i.e. , average 24.0 vs. 24.7 ) . On the other manus, Edwards, Kissling, Plauche, & A ; Marier ( 1986 ) study that after one twelvemonth, 67 % of occupants could still remember specific points presented, and 61 % reported utilizing thoughts from the class in their instruction. Overall, cognition was non an of import results step in the surveies reviewed. Improvements in learning behaviors have been the chief focal point of most surveies measuring results. Beginnings of perceptual experiences have included occupants ( i.e. , self ) , pupils, equals ( i.e. , other occupants and module ) , every bit good as professional pedagogues. Improvements in self-concept and self-reported behaviors were demonstrated in four surveies ( Bing-You & A ; Greenberg, 1990 ; Edwards, et al. , 1986 ; Edwards, et al. , 1988 ; Snell, 1989 ) . Student evaluations of occupants who attended a instruction accomplishments workshop were significantly higher ( p & lt ; 0.05 ) on four of nine dimensions including â€Å" overall instruction effectivity † ( Edwards, et al. , 1988 ) . In another survey ( Edwards, et al. , 1986 ) an effort was made to analyze the consequence of a resident REP on pupil evaluations of occupant instruction ; unluckily, the information was excessively â€Å" bare † to be interpreted validly. Improvements in resident instruction behaviors have besides been studied by observation methods. One survey ( Camp & A ; Hoban, 1988 ; Camp, et al. , 1985 ) used direct informal observation of occupant instruction by pedagogues to measure alteration. Faculty perceivers â€Å" believed that the participants showed that they had put into pattern many of the accomplishments that had been discussed and demonstrated in the class on learning†¦ † ( p. 212 ) . More formal efforts to detect and step alterations in occupant instruction behavior, utilizing observation instruments, exist. A case-control pre- and post- observation survey ( Medio, et al. , 1988 ) demonstrated an betterment in the â€Å" intervention † group as compared to â€Å" controls. † Each occupant ( 6 intervention and 6 controls ) was observed during one work unit of ammunition while reexamining an norm of 10 patients. Unfortunately, the little sample size, and the fact that â€Å" controls † consisted of occupants non take parting in the plan ( i.e. , non-random ) make reading of the consequences hard. Snell ( 1989 ) , utilizing a similar experimental design with 9 topics and 5 controls showed that post-intervention tonss increased in all three countries measured ( i.e. , talk, tutorial, and treatment ( p & lt ; 0.05 ) ) . Observation surveies utilizing videotaped occupant instruction besides demonstrated a positive impact of REPs on learning behaviors ( Bing-You, 1990 ; Edwards, et al. , 1988a ; Greenberg, et al. , 1984 ; Greenberg, et al. , 1988 ; Jewett, et al. , 1982 ; Lawson & A ; Harvill, 1980 ) . Need for reinforcement / long term consequence. How long are betterments in learning accomplishments maintained after a REP? One group of research workers ( Edwards, et al. , 1988a ) noted that betterment in occupants ‘ accomplishments ( videotaped learning ) had declined when steps were repeated six months subsequently ; evaluations were, nevertheless, still higher than pre- direction. The writers suggest that occupants may necessitate periodic short â€Å" refresher † classs to reenforce learning accomplishments throughout their residence. Of involvement, another survey ( Edwards, et al. , 1986 ) utilizing the same REP found that station class betterments in self-rated instruction accomplishments â€Å" endured without decay for at least a twelvemonth and a half † ( p. 970 ) . Furthermore, â€Å" occupants could still remember and explicate major learning points and reported that they had used these learning points 18 months after the class † ( p. 970 ) . Similarly, Snell ( 1989 ) found that increased evaluations of learning behaviors ( based on observations ) were maintained for eight months after a REP. Overall, small is known about the rate of â€Å" decay † of occupants ‘ learning accomplishments after a REP. An interesting, and unreciprocated, inquiry is whether or non concentrating on â€Å" attitude † and â€Å" self-efficacy † ( cf. , specific learning behavior ) has any consequence on the rate of decay. â€Å" Assurance † / self-efficacy. Although the concept of self-efficacy has non specifically been used as an outcomes step, self-reported â€Å" self- assurance † has. Interestingly, those surveies measuring alterations in assurance did non seek to show an association with alterations in instruction behavior. Further, the impact of a instruction assignment itself ( i.e. , experience ) on assurance has non been explicitly addressed. All three of these issues are specifically addressed in the survey described in this thesis. Snell ( 1989 ) measured self-confidence pre- and post-course by self appraisal questionnaire. Significant additions in â€Å" assurance in learning † were found in the intervention group ( P & lt ; 0.05 ) . Snell goes on to notice that â€Å" eight months after the class, the occupants all thought that they were more confident in their instruction † ( p. 126 ) . Unfortunately, the information is non presented nor is the analysis. Besides, no reference of â€Å" control † group comparing is made. Bing-You and Greenberg ( 1990 ) assessed occupants ‘ assurance as instructors and perceptual experiences toward learning utilizing a pre- workshop questionnaire. However, no post-workshop questionnaire was given ; hence, no remark on the impact of the REP on assurance can be made. At the beginning of the plan, 25 % of occupants felt confident or really confident as instructors ( 68 % slightly confident, and 7 % non confident ) . Perceived feedback of their instruction was similar to assurance degrees, with 32 % describing positive or really positive feedback. Bing-You ( 1990 ) used a pre- and post-workshop questionnaire to measure occupants ‘ â€Å" attitude towards learning. † In add-on, trained raters assessed videotapes of occupant instruction at the terminal of the workshop and once more at a mean of 6.3 months subsequently ( 2-11 months ) . However, no illations can be made sing the relationship between learning attitude and instruction behaviors given the two different survey designs for each results step ( i.e. , pre-post vs. immediate and delayed station ) . After the workshop, both occupants and housemans rated themselves as more effectual ( p & lt ; 0.05 ) as instructors in the country of cognition ( utilizing mentions ) but merely the housemans felt more effectual in their proficient accomplishments ( P & lt ; 0.01 ) . Without direct entree to the questionnaire points, it is hard to find whether â€Å" usage of mentions † and â€Å" proficient accomplishments † represent attitude or self-reported behaviors. The most interesting and best designed of the surveies looking at assurance has been reported three times ( Greenberg, et al. , 1984 ; Greenberg, et al. , 1988 ; Jewett, et al. , 1982 ) . The research workers used a pre-test / post-test control design to analyze the impact of the workshops: random assignment of 27 in the experimental group attended workshop and audience Sessionss ; 26 in the control group had no intercession. Three results steps were assessed: ( 1 ) self-assessment: preA ­ & A ; post-questionnaires measuring occupants ‘ learning attitude and perceptual experiences of instruction, ( 2 ) equal, pupil, and module rating of occupant instruction, and ( 3 ) videotaped Sessionss of occupant instruction were analyzed by nonphysicians utilizing an instrument deigned to categorise occupants ‘ behavior every 3 seconds. Forty-nine of the 53 occupants completed both self-assessment questionnaires: 18 % of occupants were â€Å" confident † or â€Å" really confident † as instructors at beginning of survey. After the class, 42 % of the experimental group and 22 % of the control group ( P & lt ; 0.05 ) were â€Å" confident † or â€Å" really confident † as instructors. Besides, 87 % of experimental group felt their instruction accomplishments were bettering ( vs. 52 % control ) . After the class, module, pupils, and equals rated 52 % of experimental occupants as â€Å" effectual † ( vs. 27 % of controls ; nearing statistical significance ) . No effort was made to show an association of alteration in attitude with a alteration in behavior. The writers report that â€Å" a figure of important correlativities were found between the assurance of occupants in both groups ( experimental and control ) as instructors and their perceptual experiences of learning as a duty † ( p. 362 ) . Percept of learning as a duty was divided into 4 classs: ( 1 ) attitude towards instruction, ( 2 ) their function as a instructor, ( 3 ) instruction methods, and ( 4 ) bettering clinical instruction. The scope of reported correlativity coefficients ( absolute value ) was 0.26-0.58. If â€Å" assurance as a instructor † is accepted as a step of learning self-efficacy, it can be assumed that this one point step of grade of â€Å" assurance as a instructor † utilizing a Likert graduated table is neither as valid nor every bit dependable as a multi-item graduated table measuring the same concept. Therefore, one can contend that the â€Å" assurance as a instructor † point in this survey is a generic or planetary ( albeit progressive ) step of learning self-efficacy. Of involvement, many of the points in Greenberg, Goldberg, and Jewett ‘s ( 1984 ) instrument measuring occupants ‘ perceptual experience of learning duty could arguably be said to measure the assorted dimensions of learning self efficaciousness as described by Ashton ( 1984 ) . For case, â€Å" Teaching medical pupils is one of the primary duties of the occupant † ( p. 362 ) corresponds with the dimension of â€Å" Personal Responsibility for Student Learning † ( p. 29 ) of Ashton ‘s eight dimensions of learning self-efficacy. It is non surprising, hence, to happen so many ( and statistically important ) correlativities between â€Å" assurance as a instructor † and perceptual experiences of learning as a duty. Most of the points in the perceptual experiences of learning as a duty merely tap the assorted dimensions of learning self-efficacy. Further support for this statement will blossom in the meth ods and consequences chapters of this thesis, as many of the points from Greenberg, Goldberg, and Jewett ‘s ( 1984 ) instrument measuring occupants ‘ perceptual experience of learning duty were incorporated into the thesis ‘s survey instrument where good internal consistence dependability was found. Camp and Hoban ( 1988 ) identified the instruction scenes encountered by occupants: ( 1 ) Case presentations ; ( 2 ) Teaching on work unit of ammunitions ; ( 3 ) Teaching clinical accomplishments class to undergraduate medical pupils ; ( 4 ) Large group presentations / talks ; ( 5 ) Small group presentations / seminars. Although occupants are on occasion called upon to talk and make presentations, most of their instruction occurs in little groups utilizing a dynamic tutorial manner. Apter, Metzger, and Glassroth ( 1988 ) quantified the most frequent instruction scenes among occupants: patients ‘ bedside ( 45.5 % ) ; one-to-one supervising of junior squad members ( 25.5 % ) ; â€Å" sit-down † ward rounds ( 23.6 % ) .